A mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as part of normal development or culture. The recognition and understanding of mental disorders has changed over time and across cultures. Definitions, assessments, and classifications of mental disorders can vary, but guideline criteria listed in the ICD The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems provides codes to classify diseases and a wide variety of signs, symptoms, abnormal findings, complaints, social circumstances and external causes of injury or disease. Every health condition can be assigned to a unique category and given a code, up to six, DSM The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is published by the American Psychiatric Association and provides diagnostic criteria for mental disorders. It is used in the United States and in varying degrees around the world, by clinicians, researchers, psychiatric drug regulation agencies, health insurance companies, pharmaceutical and other manuals are widely accepted by mental health professionals A mental health professional is a person who offers services for the purpose of improving an individual's mental health or to treat mental illness. This broad category includes psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, clinical social workers, psychiatric nurses, mental health counselors as well as many other professionals. These professionals often. Categories of diagnoses in these schemes may include dissociative disorders Dissociative disorders are defined as conditions that involve disruptions or breakdowns of memory, awareness, identity and/or perception. The hypothesis is that symptoms can result, to the extent of interfering with a person's general functioning, when one or more of these functions is disrupted, mood disorders A mood disorder is the term given for a group of diagnoses in the DSM IV TR classification system where a disturbance in the person's emotional mood is hypothesized to be the main underlying feature. The classification is known as mood disorders in ICD 10, anxiety disorders Anxiety disorder is a blanket term covering several different forms of abnormal and pathological fears and anxieties which only came under the aegis of psychiatry at the very end of the 19th Century. Current psychiatric diagnostic criteria recognize a wide variety of anxiety disorders. Recent surveys have found that as many as 18% of Americans may, psychotic Psychosis , with adjective psychotic, literally means abnormal condition of the mind, and is a generic psychiatric term for a mental state often described as involving a "loss of contact with reality". People suffering from psychosis are said to be psychotic disorders, eating disorders An eating disorder is to eat, or avoid eating, in a manner which negatively affects both one's physical and mental health. Eating disorders are all encompassing. They affect every part of the person's life. According to the authors of Surviving an Eating Disorder, "feelings about work, school, relationships, day-to-day activities and one's, developmental disorders Developmental disorders are disorders that occur at some stage in a child's development, often retarding the development. These may include psychological or physical disorders, personality disorders Personality disorders, formerly referred to as character disorders, are a class of personality types which deviate from the contemporary expectations of a society. Diagnosis of personality disorders is very subjective; however, inflexible and pervasive behavioral patterns often cause serious personal and social difficulties, as well as a general, ambulatory disorders and many other categories. In many cases there is no single accepted or consistent cause of mental disorders, although they are often explained in terms of a diathesis-stress model The diathesis–stress model is a psychological theory that explains behavior as both a result of biological and genetic factors , and life experiences ("nurture"). This model thus assumes that a disposition towards a certain disorder may result from a combination of one's genetics and early learning. The term "diathesis" is and biopsychosocial The biopsychosocial model is a general model or approach that posits that biological, psychological (which entails thoughts, emotions, and behaviors), and social factors, all play a significant role in human functioning in the context of disease or illness. Indeed, health is best understood in terms of a combination of biological, psychological, model. Mental disorders have been found to be common, with over a third of people in most countries reporting sufficient criteria at some point in their life. Services for mental disorders may be based in hospitals or in the community. Mental health professionals A mental health professional is a person who offers services for the purpose of improving an individual's mental health or to treat mental illness. This broad category includes psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, clinical social workers, psychiatric nurses, mental health counselors as well as many other professionals. These professionals often diagnose individuals using different methodologies, often relying on case history and interview. Psychotherapy Psychotherapy is an intentional interpersonal relationship used by trained psychotherapists to aid a client in problems of living. It aims to increase the individual's well-being. Psychotherapists employ a range of techniques based on experiential relationship building, dialogue, communication and behavior change and that are designed to improve and psychiatric medication A psychiatric medication is a licenced psychoactive drug taken to exert an effect on the mental state and used to treat mental disorders. Usually prescribed in psychiatric settings, these medications are typically made of synthetic chemical compounds, although some are naturally occurring[citation needed] are two major treatment options, as well as supportive interventions and self-help. Treatment may be involuntary where legislation allows. Several movements campaign for changes to services and attitudes.

Contents 1 Classifications 2 Disorders 3 Culture 4 Intangible experiences 5 Psychosocial variables 6 Western bias 7 Society 8 Diagnosis 9 Services and treatments 9.1 Psychotherapy 9.2 Medication 9.3 Other 10 Prognosis 11 Prevalence 12 History 12.1 Ancient civilizations 12.2 Europe 12.2.1 Middle Ages 12.2.2 Eighteenth century 12.2.3 Nineteenth century 12.2.4 Twentieth century 12.3 Europe and the U.S. 13 Professions and fields 14 Movements 15 Laws and policies 16 Perception and discrimination 16.1 Stigma 16.2 Media and general public 16.3 Violence 17 Non-human 18 See also 19 Notes 19.1 Further reading 20 External links

Classifications

Main article: Classification of mental disorders The classification of mental disorders, also known as psychiatric nosology or taxonomy, is a key aspect of psychiatry and other mental health professions and an important issue for consumers and providers of mental health services. There are currently two widely established systems for classifying mental illness - Chapter V of the International

The definition A definition is a passage describing the meaning of a word or phrase. The term to be defined is known as the definiendum (Latin: what is to be defined). The words which define it are known as the definiens (Latin: what defines). Definitions also occur in more formal languages (like mathematics), often for the sake of discussion within the text of and classification of mental disorder is a key issue for the mental health The World Health Organization defines mental health as "a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community”. It was previously stated that there was no one "official& and for users and providers of mental health services. Most international clinical documents use the term "mental disorder" rather than "mental illness". There is no single definition A definition is a passage describing the meaning of a word or phrase. The term to be defined is known as the definiendum (Latin: what is to be defined). The words which define it are known as the definiens (Latin: what defines). Definitions also occur in more formal languages (like mathematics), often for the sake of discussion within the text of and the inclusion criteria are said to vary depending on the social, legal and political context. In general, however, a mental disorder has been characterized as a clinically significant behavioral or psychological pattern that occurs in an individual and is usually associated with distress, disability Disability is defined by the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 as "a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities." An individual may also qualify as disabled if he/she has had an impairment in the past or is seen as disabled based on a personal or group standard or norm. Such or increased risk of suffering Suffering, or pain, is an individual's basic affective experience of unpleasantness and aversion associated with harm or threat of harm. Suffering may be qualified as physical, or mental. It may come in all degrees of intensity, from mild to intolerable. Factors of duration and frequency of occurrence usually compound that of intensity. In. The term "serious mental illness" [SMI] is sometimes used to refer to more severe and long-lasting disorder. A broad definition can cover mental disorder, mental retardation, personality disorder Personality disorders, formerly referred to as character disorders, are a class of personality types which deviate from the contemporary expectations of a society. Diagnosis of personality disorders is very subjective; however, inflexible and pervasive behavioral patterns often cause serious personal and social difficulties, as well as a general and substance dependence The related concept of drug addiction has many different definitions. Some writers give in fact drug addiction the same meaning as substance dependence, others for example provides drug addiction a narrower meaning which excludes drugs without evidence of tolerance or withdrawal symptoms. The phrase "mental health The World Health Organization defines mental health as "a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community”. It was previously stated that there was no one "official& problems" may be used to refer only to milder or more transient issues. There is often a criterion that a condition should not be expected to occur as part of a person's usual culture Culture is a term that has different meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. However, the word "culture" is most commonly used in three basic senses: or religion A religion is an organized approach to human spirituality which usually encompasses a set of narratives, symbols, beliefs and practices, often with a supernatural or transcendent quality, that give meaning to the practitioner's experiences of life through reference to a higher power, God or gods, or ultimate truth. It may be expressed through. Nevertheless, the term "mental" is not necessarily used to imply a distinction between mental (dys)functioning and brain (dys)functioning, or indeed between the brain and the rest of the body.

There are currently two widely established systems that classify mental disorders - Chapter V of the International Classification of Diseases The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems provides codes to classify diseases and a wide variety of signs, symptoms, abnormal findings, complaints, social circumstances and external causes of injury or disease. Every health condition can be assigned to a unique category and given a code, up to six (ICD-10), produced by the World Health Organization The World Health Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that acts as a coordinating authority on international public health. Established on 7 April 1948, and headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, the agency inherited the mandate and resources of its predecessor, the Health Organization, which had been an agency of the (WHO), and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is published by the American Psychiatric Association and provides diagnostic criteria for mental disorders. It is used in the United States and in varying degrees around the world, by clinicians, researchers, psychiatric drug regulation agencies, health insurance companies, pharmaceutical (DSM-IV) produced by the American Psychiatric Association The American Psychiatric Association is the main professional organization of psychiatrists and trainee psychiatrists in the United States, and the most influential world-wide. Its some 38,000 members are mainly American but some are international. The association publishes various journals and pamphlets, as well as the Diagnostic and Statistical (APA). Both list categories of disorder and provide standardized criteria for diagnosis. They have deliberately converged their codes in recent revisions so that the manuals are often broadly comparable, although significant differences remain. Other classification schemes may be in use more locally, for example the Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders The Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders , published by the Chinese Society of Psychiatry (CSP), is a clinical guide used in China for the diagnosis of mental disorders. It is currently on a third version, the CCMD-3, written in Chinese and English. It is intentionally similar in structure and categorisation to the ICD and DSM, the two most. Other manuals may be used by those of alternative theoretical persuasions, for example the Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual The Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual is a diagnostic handbook similar to the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) or the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). The PDM was published on May 28, 2006.

Some approaches to classification do not employ distinct categories based on cut-offs separating the abnormal from the normal. They are variously referred to as spectrum, continuum or dimensional systems. There is a significant scientific debate about the relative merits of a categorical or a non-categorical system. There is also significant controversy about the role of science and values in classification schemes, and about the professional, legal and social uses to which they are put.

Disorders

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There are many different categories of mental disorder, and many different facets of human behavior and personality that can become disordered.^[1][2][3][4]

The state of anxiety Anxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by cognitive, somatic, emotional, and behavioral components. These components combine to create an unpleasant feeling that is typically associated with uneasiness, fear, or worry or fear Fear is an emotional response to threats and danger. It is a basic survival mechanism occurring in response to a specific stimulus, such as pain or the threat of pain. Psychologists John B. Watson, Robert Plutchik, and Paul Ekman have suggested that fear is one of a small set of basic or innate emotions. This set also includes such emotions as joy, can become disordered, so that it is unusually intense or generalized over a prolonged period of time. Commonly recognized categories of anxiety disorders Anxiety disorder is a blanket term covering several different forms of abnormal and pathological fears and anxieties which only came under the aegis of psychiatry at the very end of the 19th Century. Current psychiatric diagnostic criteria recognize a wide variety of anxiety disorders. Recent surveys have found that as many as 18% of Americans may include specific phobia A phobia , is an irrational, intense, persistent fear of certain situations, activities, things, or people. The main symptom of this disorder is the excessive, unreasonable desire to avoid the feared subject. When the fear is beyond one's control, or if the fear is interfering with daily life, then a diagnosis under one of the anxiety disorders, Generalized anxiety disorder Generalized anxiety disorder is an anxiety disorder that is characterized by excessive, uncontrollable and often irrational worry about everyday things that is disproportionate to the actual source of worry. This excessive worry often interferes with daily functioning, as individuals suffering GAD typically catastrophise, anticipate disaster, and, Social Anxiety Disorder Social anxiety disorder , also known as social anxiety or social phobia is a diagnosis within psychiatry and other mental health professions referring to excessive social anxiety (anxiety in social situations) causing considerable distress and impaired ability to function in at least some areas of daily life. The diagnosis can be of a specific, Panic Disorder Panic disorder is an anxiety disorder characterized by recurring severe panic attacks. It may also include significant behavioral change lasting at least a month and of ongoing worry about the implications or concern about having other attacks. The latter are called anticipatory attacks . Panic disorder is not the same as agoraphobia, although, Agoraphobia Agoraphobia is an anxiety disorder, often precipitated by the fear of having a panic attack in a setting from which there is no easy means of escape. As a result, sufferers of agoraphobia may avoid public and/or unfamiliar places. In severe cases, the sufferer may become confined to his or her home, experiencing difficulty traveling from this &, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Obsessive-compulsive disorder is a human anxiety disorder characterized by involuntary intrusive thoughts. When a sufferer begins to acknowledge these intrusive thoughts, the sufferer then develops anxiety based on the dread that something bad will happen. The sufferer feels compelled to voluntarily perform irrational, time-consuming behaviors to, Post-traumatic stress disorder Posttraumatic stress disorder is an anxiety disorder that can develop after exposure to one or more traumatic events that threatened or caused great physical harm. Relatively long lasting affective Affect, like the adjective affective, refers to the experience of feeling or emotion. Affect is a key part of the process of an organism’s interaction with stimuli. The word also refers sometimes to affect display, which is "a facial, vocal, or gestural behavior that serves as an indicator of affect." states can also become disordered. Mood disorder A mood disorder is the term given for a group of diagnoses in the DSM IV TR classification system where a disturbance in the person's emotional mood is hypothesized to be the main underlying feature. The classification is known as mood disorders in ICD 10 involving unusually intense and sustained sadness, melancholia or despair is know as Clinical depression Major depressive disorder is a mental disorder characterized by an all-encompassing low mood accompanied by low self-esteem, and loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities. The term "major depressive disorder" was selected by the American Psychiatric Association to designate this symptom cluster as a mood disorder in (or Major depression), and may more generally be described as Emotional dysregulation Emotional dysregulation, commonly known as "mood swings", is a term used in the mental health community to refer to an emotional response that is poorly modulated and does not fall within the conventionally accepted range of emotive response. Possible manifestations of emotional dysregulation include angry outbursts or behavior outbursts. Milder but prolonged depression can be diagnosed as dysthymia Dysthymia is a chronic mood disorder that falls within the depression spectrum. It is considered a chronic depression, but with less severity than major depressive disorder. This disorder tends to be a chronic, long-lasting illness. Bipolar disorder Bipolar disorder, also known as manic depression, manic depressive disorder or bipolar affective disorder, is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a category of mood disorders defined by the presence of one or more episodes of abnormally elevated mood clinically referred to as mania or, if milder, hypomania. Individuals who experience manic involves abnormally "high" or pressured mood states, known as mania Mania is a severe medical condition characterized by extremely elevated mood, energy, unusual thought patterns and sometimes psychosis. There are several possible causes for mania including drug abuse and brain tumors, but it is most often associated with bipolar disorder, where episodes of mania alternate with episodes of major depression. These or hypomania Hypomania is a mood state characterized by persistent and pervasive elevated or irritable mood, and thoughts and behaviors that are consistent with such a mood state. An unequivocal change in functioning that is uncharacteristic when asymptomatic. People experiencing hypomanic symptoms typically have a flood of ideas, and sometimes mildly, alternating with normal or depressed mood. Whether unipolar and bipolar mood phenomena represent distinct categories of disorder, or whether they usually mix and merge together along a dimension or spectrum of mood, is under debate in the scientific literature.^[5]

Patterns of belief, language use and perception can become disordered. Psychotic disorders centrally involving this domain include Schizophrenia,and Delusional disorder. Schizoaffective disorder is a category used for individuals showing aspects of both schizophrenia and affective disorders. Schizotypy is a category used for individuals showing some of the traits associated with schizophrenia but without meeting cut-off criteria.

The fundamental characteristics of a person that influence his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors across situations and time - can be seen as disordered due to being abnormally rigid and maladaptive. Categorical schemes list a number of different personality disorders, such as those classed as eccentric (e.g. Paranoid personality disorder, Schizoid personality disorder, Schizotypal personality disorder), those described as dramatic or emotional (Antisocial personality disorder, Borderline personality disorder, Histrionic personality disorder, Narcissistic personality disorder) or those seen as fear-related (Avoidant personality disorder, Dependent personality disorder, Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder).

There may be an emerging consensus that personality disorders, like personality traits in the normal range, incorporate a mixture of more acute dysfunctional behaviors that resolve in relatively short periods, and maladaptive temperamental traits that are relatively more stable.^[6] Non-categorical schemes may rate individuals via a profile across different dimensions of personality that are not seen as cut off from normal personality variation, commonly through schemes based on the Big Five personality traits.^[7]

Other disorders may involve other attributes of human functioning. Eating practices can be disordered, at least in relatively rich industrialized areas, with either compulsive over-eating or under-eating or binging. Categories of disorder in this area include Anorexia nervosa, Bulimia nervosa, Exercise bulimia or Binge eating disorder. Sleep disorders such as Insomnia also exist and can disrupt normal sleep patterns. Sexual and gender identity disorders, such as Dyspareunia or Gender identity disorder or ego-dystonic homosexuality. People who are abnormally unable to resist urges, or impulses, to perform acts that could be harmful to themselves or others, may be classed as having an impulse control disorder, including various kinds of Tic disorders such as Tourette's Syndrome, and disorders such as Kleptomania (stealing) or Pyromania (fire-setting). Substance-use disorders include Substance abuse disorder. Addictive gambling may be classed as a disorder. Inability to sufficiently adjust to life circumstances may be classed as an Adjustment disorder. The category of adjustment disorder is usually reserved for problems beginning within three months of the event or situation and ending within six months after the stressor stops or is eliminated. People who suffer severe disturbances of their self-identity, memory and general awareness of themselves and their surroundings may be classed as having a Dissociative identity disorder, such as Depersonalization disorder or Dissociative Identity Disorder itself (which has also been called multiple personality disorder, or "split personality"). Factitious disorders, such as Munchausen syndrome, also exist where symptoms are experienced and/or reported for personal gain.

Disorders appearing to originate in the body, but thought to be mental, are known as somatoform disorders, including Somatization disorder. There are also disorders of the perception of the body, including Body dysmorphic disorder. Neurasthenia is a category involving somatic complaints as well as fatigue and low spirits/depression, which is officially recognized by the ICD-10 but not by the DSM-IV.^[8] Memory or cognitive disorders, such as amnesia or Alzheimer's disease exist.

Other proposed disorders include: Self-defeating personality disorder, Sadistic personality disorder, Passive-aggressive personality disorder, Premenstrual dysphoric disorder, Video game addiction, Internet addiction disorder.

Culture

Different societies or cultures and even different individuals in a culture can disagree as to what constitutes optimal vs. pathological biological and psychological functioning.Research has demonstrated that cultures vary in the relative importance placed on, for example, happiness, autonomy, or social relationships for pleasure. Likewise, the fact that a behaviour pattern is valued, accepted, encouraged, or even statistically normative in a culture does not necessarily mean that it is conducive to optimal psychological functioning.

People in all cultures find some behaviours bizarre or even incomprehensible. But just what they feel is bizarre or incomprehensible is ambiguous and subjective.^[9] These differences in determination can become highly contentious.

Intangible experiences

Religious, spiritual, or transpersonal experiences and beliefs are typically not defined as disordered, especially if widely shared, despite meeting many criteria of delusional or psychotic disorders.^[10][11] Even when a belief or experience can be shown to produce distress or disability, the ordinary standard for judging mental disorders; the presence of a strong cultural basis for that belief, experience, or interpretation of experience generally disqualifies it from counting as evidence of mental disorder.

Psychosocial variables

In the mental health community, the psychosocial interaction is being discussed.

In recent years, some psychiatrists and psychologists have argued that current diagnostic standards tend to overstate or misinterpret neurophysiological findings and to understate the scientific importance of social-psychological variables.^[12] Advocating a more culturally sensitive approach to psychology, critics such as Carl Bell and Marcello Maviglia contend that the cultural and ethnic diversity of individuals is often discounted by researchers and service providers.^[13]

Western bias

Current diagnostic guidelines have been criticized as having a fundamentally Euro-American outlook. They have been widely implemented, but opponents argue that even when diagnostic criteria are accepted across different cultures, it does not mean that the underlying constructs have any validity within those cultures; even reliable application can prove only consistency, not legitimacy.^[12]

Cross-cultural psychiatrist Arthur Kleinman contends that the Western bias is ironically illustrated in the introduction of cultural factors to the DSM-IV: that disorders or concepts from non-Western or non-mainstream cultures are described as "culture-bound", whereas standard psychiatric diagnoses are given no cultural qualification whatsoever, reveals to Kleinman an underlying assumption that Western cultural phenomena are universal.^[14] Kleinman's negative view towards the culture-bound syndrome is largely shared by other cross-cultural critics, common responses included both disappointment over the large number of documented non-Western mental disorders still left out and frustration that even those included were often misinterpreted or misrepresented.^[15]

Many mainstream psychiatrists are dissatisfied with the new culture-bound diagnoses, although for different reasons. Robert Spitzer, a lead architect of the DSM-III, has opined that adding cultural formulations was an attempt to placate cultural critics and that the formulations lack any scientific motivation or support. Spitzer also posits that the new culture-bound diagnoses are rarely used, maintaining that the standard diagnoses apply regardless of the culture involved. In general, mainstream psychiatric opinion remains that if a diagnostic category is valid, cross-cultural factors are either irrelevant or are significant only to specific symptom presentations.^[12]

Society

Clinical conceptions of mental illness also overlap with cultural values and in the realm of morality and social behaviour, so much so that it is sometimes argued that separating the two would be impossible without fundamentally redefining a person's role in society.^[16] In clinical psychiatry, persistent distress and disability indicate an internal disorder requiring treatment; but in another context, that same distress and disability can be seen as an indicator of emotional struggle and the need to address social and structural problems.^[17][18] This dichotomy has lead some academics and clinicians to advocate a postmodernist conceptualization of mental distress and well-being.^[19][20]

Such approaches, along with cross-cultural and "heretical" psychologies centred on alternative cultural and ethnic identities and experiences, stand in contrast to the mainstream psychiatric community's active avoidance of any involvement with either morality or culture.^[21]

Diagnosis

Many mental health professionals, particularly psychiatrists, seek to diagnose individuals by ascertaining their particular mental disorder. Some professionals, for example some clinical psychologists, may avoid diagnosis in favor of other assessment methods such as formulation of a client's difficulties and circumstances.^[22] The majority of mental health problems are actually assessed and treated by family physicians during consultations, who may refer on for more specialist diagnosis in acute or chronic cases. Routine diagnostic practice in mental health services typically involves an interview (which may be referred to as a mental status examination), where judgments are made of the interviewee's appearance and behavior, self-reported symptoms, mental health history, and current life circumstances. The views of relatives or other third parties may be taken into account. A physical examination to check for ill health or the effects of medications or other drugs may be conducted. Psychological testing is sometimes used via paper-and-pen or computerized questionnaires, which may include algorithms based on ticking off standardized diagnostic criteria, and in relatively rare specialist cases neuroimaging tests may be requested, but these methods are more commonly found in research studies than routine clinical practice.^[23][24] Time and budgetary constraints often limit practicing psychiatrists from conducting more thorough diagnostic evaluations.^[25] It has been found that most clinicians evaluate patients using an unstructured, open-ended approach, with limited training in evidence-based assessment methods, and that inaccurate diagnosis may be common in routine practice.^[26] Mental illness involving hallucinations or delusions (especially schizophrenia) are prone to misdiagnosis in developing countries due to the presence of psychotic symptoms instigated by nutritional deficiencies. Comorbidity is very common in psychiatric diagnosis, i.e. the same person given a diagnosis in more than one category of disorder.

Services and treatments

Main article: Treatment of mental disorders Main article: Services for mental disorders

Treatment and support may be provided in psychiatric hospitals, clinics or any of a diverse range of community mental health services. Often an individual may engage in different treatment modalities. A strong sense of being part of an interdependent society in developing countries makes the community-based treatment model the most effective mode of treatment. A combination of community-based treatment and the use of typical antipsychotic drugs have been found to yield the most positive, cost-effective results. Individuals may be treated against their will in some cases. Services in many countries are increasingly based on a Recovery model that supports an individual's personal journey to regain a meaningful life.

Psychotherapy

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A major option for many mental disorders is psychotherapy. There are several main types. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is widely used and is based on modifying the patterns of thought and behavior associated with a particular disorder. Psychoanalysis, addressing underlying psychic conflicts and defenses, has been a dominant school of psychotherapy and is still in use. Systemic therapy or family therapy is sometimes used, addressing a network of significant others as well as an individual. Some psychotherapies are based on a humanistic approach. There are a number of specific therapies used for particular disorders, which may be offshoots or hybrids of the above types. Mental health professionals often employ an eclectic or integrative approach. Much may depend on the therapeutic relationship, and there may be problems with trust, confidentiality and engagement.

Medication

A major option for many mental disorders is psychiatric medication. There are several main groups.

Antidepressants are used for the treatment of clinical depression as well as often for anxiety and other disorders. There are a number of antidepressants beginning with the tricyclics, moving through a wide variety of drugs that modify various facets of the brain chemistry dealing with intercellular communication. Beta-blockers, developed as a heart medication, are also used as an antidepressant.

Anxiolytics are used for anxiety disorders and related problems such as insomnia.

Mood stabilizers are used primarily in bipolar disorder. Lithium carbonate (a salt) and Lamictal (an epileptic drug) are notable for treating both mania and depression. The others, mainly targeting mania rather than depression, are a wide variety of epilepsy medications and antipsychotics.

Antipsychotics are used for psychotic disorders, notably for positive symptoms in schizophrenia. Although there has not been any evidence of the superiority of newer, atypical antipsychotic drugs, they are being prescribed to individuals throughout the world. The prescription of relatively cheaper, older typical antipsychotic drugs is also used.

Stimulants are commonly used, notably for ADHD. Despite the different conventional names of the drug groups, there can be considerable overlap in the kinds of disorders for which they are actually indicated.

There may also be off-label use of medications. There can be problems with adverse effects of medication and adherence.

Recently, the pharmaceutical industry has come into severe criticism for hiding negative results from clinical trials from the public and the USFDA and for promoting medications for unapproved uses by pharmaceutical sales representatives. Prominent psychiatric researchers have also come under fire recently for failing to disclose drug company compensation which poses serious potential conflicts of interest with their research and professional activities.

Other

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is sometimes used in severe cases when other interventions for severe intractable depression have failed. Psychosurgery is considered experimental but is advocated by certain neurologists in certain rare cases.^[27][28]

Psychoeducation may be used to provide people with the information to understand and manage their problems. Creative therapies are sometimes used, including music therapy, art therapy or drama therapy. Lifestyle adjustments and supportive measures are often used, including peer support, self-help groups for mental health and supported housing or supported employment (including social firms). Some advocate dietary supplements.^[29] Many things have been found to help at least some people. A placebo effect may play a role in any intervention.

Prognosis

Prognosis depends on the disorder, the individual and numerous related factors. Some disorders may be transient, while some may last a lifetime in some cases. Some disorders may be very limited in their functional effects, while others may involve substantial disability and support needs. The degree of ability or disability may vary across different life domains. Continued disability has been linked to institutionalization, discrimination and social exclusion as well as to the inherent properties of disorders.

Even those disorders often considered the most serious and intractable have varied courses. Long-term international studies of schizophrenia have found that over a half of individuals recover in terms of symptoms, and around a fifth to a third in terms of symptoms and functioning, with some requiring no medication. At the same time, many have serious difficulties and support needs for many years, although "late" recovery is still possible. The WHO concluded that the findings joined others in "relieving patients, carers and clinicians of the chronicity paradigm which dominated thinking throughout much of the 20th century."^[30][31] Around half of people initially diagnosed with bipolar disorder achieve syndromal recovery (no longer meeting criteria for the diagnosis) within six weeks, and nearly all achieve it within two years, with nearly a half regaining their prior occupational and residential status in that period. However, nearly a half go on to experience a new episode of mania or major depression within the next two years.^[32] Functioning has been found to vary, being poor during periods of major depression or mania but otherwise fair to good, and possibly superior during periods of hypomania in Bipolar II.^[33]

Despite often being characterized in purely negative terms, some mental states labeled as disorders can also involve above-average creativity, non-conformity, goal-striving, meticulousness, or empathy.^[34] In addition, the public perception of the level of disability associated with mental disorders can change.^[35]

Prevalence

Main article: Prevalence of mental disorders

Mental disorders have been found to be relatively common, with more than one in three people in most countries reporting sufficient criteria for at least one diagnosis at some point in their life up to the time they were assessed.^[36] A new WHO global survey currently underway[1] indicates that anxiety disorders are the most common in all but 1 country, followed by mood disorders in all but 2 countries, while substance disorders and impulse-control disorders were consistently less prevalent. Rates varied by region.^[37] Such statistics are widely believed to be underestimates, due to poor diagnosis (especially in countries without affordable access to mental health services) and low reporting rates, in part because of the predominant use of self-report data rather than semi-structured instruments.^{[citation needed]} Actual lifetime prevalence rates for mental disorders are estimated to be between 65% and 85%.^{[citation needed]}

A review of anxiety disorder surveys in different countries found average lifetime prevalence estimates of 16.6%, with women having higher rates on average.^[38] A review of mood disorder surveys in different countries found lifetime rates of 6.7% for major depressive disorder (higher in some studies, and in women) and 0.8% for bipolar 1 disorder.^[39]

The updated US National Comorbidity Survey (NCS) reported that nearly half of Americans (46.4%) meet criteria at some point in their life for either an anxiety disorder (28.8%), mood disorder (20.8%), impulse-control disorder (24.8%) or substance use disorder (14.6%).^[40][41][42]

A 2004 cross-Europe study found that approximately one in four people reported meeting criteria at some point in their life for at least one of the DSM-IV disorders assessed, which included mood disorders (13.9%), anxiety disorders (13.6%) or alcohol disorder (5.2%). Approximately one in ten met criteria within a 12-month period. Women and younger people of either gender showed more cases of disorder.^[43] A 2005 review of surveys in 16 European countries found that 27% of adult Europeans are affected by at least one mental disorder in a 12 month period.^[44]

An international review of studies on the prevalence of schizophrenia found an average (median) figure of 0.4% for lifetime prevalence; it was consistently lower in poorer countries.^[45]

Studies of the prevalence of personality disorders (PDs) have been fewer and smaller-scale, but one broad Norwegian survey found a five-year prevalence of almost 1 in 7 (13.4%). Rates for specific disorders ranged from 0.8% to 2.8%, differing across countries, and by gender, educational level and other factors.^[46] A US survey that incidentally screened for personality disorder found a rate of 14.79%.^[47]

Approximately 7% of a preschool pediatric sample were given a psychiatric diagnosis in one clinical study, and approximately 10% of 1- and 2-year-olds receiving developmental screening have been assessed as having significant emotional/behavioral problems based on parent and pediatrician reports.^[48]

History

Eight women representing prominent mental diagnoses in the nineteenth century. (Armand Gautier) Main article: History of mental disorders

Ancient civilizations

Ancient civilisations described and treated a number of mental disorders. The Greeks coined terms for melancholy, hysteria and phobia and developed the humorism theory. Psychiatric theories and treatments developed in Persia, Arabia and the Muslim Empire, particularly in the medieval Islamic world from the 8th century, where the first psychiatric hospitals were built.

Europe

Middle Ages

Conceptions of madness in the Middle Ages in Christian Europe were a mixture of the divine, diabolical, magical and humoral, as well as more down to earth considerations. In the early modern period, some people with mental disorders may have been victims of the witch-hunts but were increasingly admitted to local workhouses and jails or sometimes to private madhouses. Many terms for mental disorder that found their way into everyday use first became popular the 16th and 17th centuries.

Eighteenth century

By the end of the 17th century and into the Enlightenment, madness was increasingly seen as an organic physical phenomenon with no connection to the soul or moral responsibility. Asylum care was often harsh and treated people like wild animals, but towards the end of the 18th century a moral treatment movement gradually developed. Clear descriptions of some syndromes may be relatively rare prior to the 1800s.

Nineteenth century

Industrialization and population growth led to a massive expansion of the number and size of insane asylums in every Western country in the 19th century. Numerous different classification schemes and diagnostic terms were developed by different authorities, and the term psychiatry was coined, though medical superintendents were still known as alienists.

Twentieth century

The turn of the 20th century saw the development of psychoanalysis, which would later come to the fore, along with Kraepelin's classification scheme. Asylum "inmates" were increasingly referred to as "patients" and asylums renamed as hospitals.

Europe and the U.S.

In the twentieth century in the United States, a mental hygiene movement developed, aiming to prevent mental disorders. Clinical psychology and social work developed as professions. World War I saw a massive increase of conditions that came to be termed "shell shock."

World War II saw the development in the U.S. of a new psychiatric manual for categorizing mental disorders, which along with existing systems for collecting census and hospital statistics led to the first Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) followed suit with a section on mental disorders.

The term stress, having emerged out of endocrinology work in the 1930s, was increasingly applied to mental disorders. Electroconvulsive therapy, insulin shock therapy, lobotomies and the "neuroleptic" chlorpromazine came to be used by mid-century. An antipsychiatry movement came to the fore in the 1960s. Deinstitutionalization gradually occurred in the West, with isolated psychiatric hospitals being closed down in favor of community mental health services. A consumer/survivor movement gained momentum. Other kinds of psychiatric medication gradually came into use, such as "psychic energizers" and lithium. Benzodiazepines gained widespread use in the 1970s for anxiety and depression, until dependency problems curtailed their popularity.

Advances in neuroscience and genetics led to new research agendas. Cognitive behavioral therapy was developed. The DSM and then ICD adopted new criteria-based classifications, and the number of "official" diagnoses saw a large expansion. Through the 1990s, new SSRI antidepressants became some of the most widely prescribed drugs in the world. A recovery model developed.

Professions and fields

Main article: Mental health professional

A number of professions have developed that specialise in the treatment of mental disorders, including the medical speciality of psychiatry (including psychiatric nursing),^[49][50][51] the division of psychology known as clinical psychology,^[52] Social Work,^[53] as well as Mental Health Counselors, Marriage and Family Therapists, Psychotherapists, Counselors and Public Health professionals. Those with personal experience of using mental health services are also increasingly involved in researching and delivering mental health services and working as mental health professionals.^{[54][55][56][57]} The different clinical and scientific perspectives draw on diverse fields of research and theory, and different disciplines may favor differing models, explanations and goals.^[34]

Movements

The Consumer/Survivor Movement (also known as user/survivor movement) is made up of individuals (and organizations representing them) who are clients of mental health services or who consider themselves "survivors" of mental health services. The movement campaigns for improved mental health services and for more involvement and empowerment within mental health services, policies and wider society.^[58][59][60] Patient advocacy organizations have expanded with increasing deinstitutionalization in developed countries, working to challenge the stereotypes, stigma and exclusion associated with psychiatric conditions. An antipsychiatry movement fundamentally challenges mainstream psychiatric theory and practice, including the reality or utility of psychiatric diagnoses of mental illnesses.^[61][62][63]

Laws and policies

Three quarters of countries around the world have mental health legislation. Compulsory admission to mental health facilities (also known as Involuntary commitment or sectioning), is a controversial topic. From some points of view it can impinge on personal liberty and the right to choose, and carry the risk of abuse for political, social and other reasons; from other points of view, it can potentially prevent harm to self and others, and assist some people in attaining their right to healthcare when unable to decide in their own interests.^[64]

All human-rights oriented mental health laws require proof of the presence of a mental disorder as defined by internationally accepted standards, but the type and severity of disorder that counts can vary in different jurisdictions. The two most often utilized grounds for involuntary admission are said to be serious likelihood of immediate or imminent danger to self or others, and the need for treatment. Applications for someone to be involuntarily admitted may usually come from a mental health practitioner, a family member, a close relative, or a guardian. Human-rights-oriented laws usually stipulate that independent medical practitioners or other accredited mental health practitioners must examine the patient separately and that there should be regular, time-bound review by an independent review body.^[64] An individual must be shown to lack the capacity to give or withhold informed consent (i.e. to understand treatment information and its implications). Legal challenges in some areas have resulted in supreme court decisions that a person does NOT have to agree with a psychiatrist's characterization of their issues as an "illness", nor with a psychiatrist's conviction in medication, but only recognise the issues and the information about treatment options.^[65]

Proxy consent (also known as substituted decision-making) may be given to a personal representative, a family member or a legally appointed guardian, or patients may have been able to enact an advance directive as to how they wish to be treated.^[64] The right to supported decision-making may also be included in legislation.^[66] Involuntary treatment laws are increasingly extended to those living in the community, for example outpatient commitment laws (known by different names) are used in New Zealand, Australia, United Kingdom and most of the United States.

The World Health Organization reports that in many instances national mental health legislation takes away the rights of persons with mental disorders rather than protecting rights, and is often outdated.^[64] In 1991, the United Nations adopted the Principles for the Protection of Persons with Mental Illness and the Improvement of Mental Health Care, which established minimum human rights standards of practice in the mental health field. In 2006 the UN formally agreed the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities to protect and enhance the rights and opportunities of disabled people, including those with psychosocial disabilities^[67]

The term insanity, sometimes used colloquially as a synonym for mental illness, is often used technically as a legal term.

Perception and discrimination

Stigma

The social stigma associated with mental disorders is a widespread problem. Some people believe those with serious mental illnesses cannot recover, or are to blame for problems.^[68] The US Surgeon General stated in 1999 that: "Powerful and pervasive, stigma prevents people from acknowledging their own mental health problems, much less disclosing them to others.^[69] Employment discrimination is reported to play a significant part in the high rate of unemployment among those with a diagnosis of mental illness.^[70]

Efforts are being undertaken worldwide to eliminate the stigma of mental illness^[71] Their methods and outcomes have sometimes been criticized as counterproductive.^[72]

A study by Baylor University researchers found that clergy often deny or dismiss the existence of the mental illness. In a study published in Mental Health, Religion and Culture, researchers found that in a study of 293 Christian church members, more than 32 percent were told by their church pastor that they or their loved one did not really have a mental illness. The study found these church members were told the cause of their problem was solely spiritual in nature, such as a personal sin, lack of faith or demonic involvement. Baylor researchers also found that women were more likely than men to have their mental disorders dismissed by the church. All of the participants in both studies were previously diagnosed by a licensed mental health provider as having a serious mental illness, like bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, prior to approaching their local church for assistance.^[73]

Media and general public

Main article: Mental disorders in art and literature

Media coverage of mental illness comprises predominantly negative depictions, for example, of incompetence, violence or criminality, with far less coverage of positive issues such as accomplishments or human rights issues.^[74][75][76] Such negative depictions, including in children's cartoons, are thought to contribute to stigma and negative attitudes in the public and in those with mental health problems themselves, although more sensitive or serious cinematic portrayals have increased in prevalence.^[77][78]

In the United States, The Carter Center has created fellowships for journalists in South Africa, the U.S., and Romania, to enable reporters to research and write stories on mental health topics.^[79] Former U.S. First Lady Rosalynn Carter began the fellowships not only to train reporters in how to sensitively and accurately discuss mental health and mental illness, but also to increase the number of stories on these topics in the news media.^[80][81]

The general public have been found to hold a strong stereotype of dangerousness and desire for social distance from individuals described as mentally ill.^[82]

Violence

People with mental disorders are often afraid of violence against them. Over a quarter of individuals diagnosed with "severe mental illness" accessing community mental health services in a US inner-city area were found to have been victims of at least one violent crime in a year, a proportion eleven times higher than the inner-city average. The proportion is many times greater in every category of crime, including rape/sexual assault, other violent assaults, and personal and property theft.^[83][84] Findings consistently indicate that it is many times more likely that people diagnosed with a serious mental illness living in the community will be the victims rather than the perpetrators of violence.^[85][86]

However, fear of unpredictable violent acts by people with mental illness also exists though not as common as many people think. One US national survey indicated that a far higher percentage of Americans rated individuals described as displaying the characteristics of a mental disorder (for example Schizophrenia or Substance Use Disorder) as "likely to do something violent to others" compared to those described as being 'troubled'.^[87] Research indicates, on balance, a higher than average number of violent acts by some individuals with certain diagnoses, notably antisocial or psychopathic personality disorders, but conflicting findings about specific symptoms (for example links between psychosis and violence in community settings) - but the mediating factors of such acts are most consistently found to be mainly socio-demographic and socio-economic factors such as being young, male, of lower socio-economic status and, in particular, substance abuse (including alcohol).^[34][85][88] For the most serious crimes, such as homicide, some diagnoses are over-represented in arrests/convictions; however, although high-profile cases have lead to fears that this has increased due to deinstitutionalization, this does not reflect the evidence.^[89]

Violence related to mental disorder (in either direction) typically occurs in the context of complex social interactions, often in a family setting rather than between strangers.^[90] It is also an issue in health care settings^[91] and the wider community.^[92]

Non-human

Psychopathology in non-human primates has been studied since the mid 20th century. Over 20 behavioral patterns in captive chimpanzees have been documented as (statistically) abnormal for their frequency, severity or oddness - some of which have also been observed in the wild. Captive great apes show gross behavioral abnormalities such as stereotypy of movements, self-mutilation, disturbed emotional reactions (mainly fear or aggression) towards companions, lack of species-typical communications, and generalized learned helplessness. In some cases such behaviors are hypothesized to be equivalent to symptoms associated with psychiatric disorders in humans such as depression, anxiety disorders, eating disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder. Concepts of antisocial, borderline and schizoid personality disorders have also been applied to non-human great apes.^[93]

The risk of anthropomorphism is often raised with regard to such comparisons, and assessment of non-human animals cannot incorporate evidence from linguistic communication. However, available evidence may range from nonverbal behaviors - including physiological responses and homologous facial displays and acoustic utterances - to neurochemical studies. It is pointed out that human psychiatric classification is often based on statistical description and judgement of behaviors (especially when speech or language is impaired) and that the use of verbal self-report is itself problematic and unreliable.^[93][94]

Psychopathology has generally been traced, at least in captivity, to adverse rearing conditions such as early separation of infants from mothers; early sensory deprivation; and extended periods of social isolation. Studies have also indicated individual variation in temperament, such as sociability or impulsiveness. Particular causes of problems in captivity have included integration of strangers in to existing groups and a lack of individual space, in which context some pathological behaviors have also been seen as coping mechanisms. Remedial interventions have included careful individually-tailored re-socialization programs, behavior therapy, environment enrichment, and on rare occasions psychiatric drugs. Socialization has been found to work 90% of the time in disturbed chimpanzees, although restoration of functional sexuality and care-giving is often not achieved.^[93][95]

Laboratory researchers sometimes try to induce symptoms in animals through genetic, neurological or behavioral manipulation,^[96][97] although this has been criticized on empirical grounds^{[citation needed]} and opposed on animal rights grounds. The modern city, in connection with the psychological disorders of its residents, has been described as a human zoo.

See also

Allan Memorial Institute Anti-psychiatry Douglas Hospital DSM-IV Codes List of mentally ill monarchs Mental disorder defence Mental disorders and gender

Mental health Mental illness in films Mental retardation Psychiatric assessment Psychopathology Self-help groups for mental health Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID)

Notes

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Further reading

• Atkinson, J. (2006) Private and Public Protection: Civil Mental Health Legislation, Edinburgh, Dunedin Academic Press ISBN 1903765617
• Hockenbury, Don and Sandy (2004). Discovering Psychology. Worth Publishers. ISBN 0-7167-5704-4.
• Fried, Yehuda and Joseph Agassi, (1976). Paranoia: A Study in Diagnosis. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 50. ISBN 90-277-0704-9.
• Fried, Yehuda and Joseph Agassi, (1983). Psychiatry as Medicine. The HAgue, Nijhoff. ISBN 90-247-2837-1.
• Porter, Roy (2002). Madness: a brief history. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280266-6.
• Weller M.P.I. and Eysenck M. The Scientific Basis of Psychiatry, W.B. Saunders, London, Philadelphia, Toronto etc. 1992
• Wiencke, Markus (2006) Schizophrenie als Ergebnis von Wechselwirkungen: Georg Simmels Individualitätskonzept in der Klinischen Psychologie. In David Kim (ed.), Georg Simmel in Translation: Interdisciplinary Border-Crossings in Culture and Modernity (pp. 123–155). Cambridge Scholars Press, Cambridge, ISBN 1-84718-060-5

External links

Listen to this article (info/dl) This audio file was created from a revision dated 2005-08-20, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help) More spoken articles

• NIMH.NIH.gov - 'Working to improve mental health through biomedical research on mind, brain, and behavior', National Institute of Mental Health (United States)
• NIMHE - 'Responsible for supporting the implementation of positive change in mental health and mental health services', National Institute for Mental Health (United Kingdom)
• International Committee of Women Leaders on Mental Health – an international body of women political leaders founded by the World Mental Health Federation to produce positive change for citizens who struggle with mental illnesses.
• Mental Disorder In Old Age
• Psychology Dictionary
• Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
• Mental Illness Watch
• Metapsychology Online Reviews: Medications & Psychiatry

Pathology: Medical conditions (Diseases/Disorders/Illness, Syndromes/Sequences, Symptoms/Signs, Injuries, etc.) (A/B, 001-139) Infectious disease/Infection: Bacterial disease (G+, G-) · Virus disease · Parasitic disease (Protozoan infection, Helminthiasis, Ectoparasitic infestation) · Mycosis · Zoonosis (C/D, 140-239 & 280-289) Cancer (C00-D48, 140-239) Tumor Myeloid hematologic (D50-D77, 280-289) Anemia · Coagulopathy Lymphoid immune (D80-D89, 279) Immunodeficiency · Immunoproliferative disorder · Hypersensitivity (E, 240-278) Endocrine disease · Nutrition disorder · Inborn error of metabolism (F, 290-319) Mental disorder (G, 320-359) Nervous system disease (CNS, PNS) · Neuromuscular disease (H, 360-389) Eye disease · Ear disease (I, 390-459) Cardiovascular disease (Heart disease, Vascular disease) (J, 460-519) Respiratory disease (Obstructive lung disease, Restrictive lung disease, Pneumonia) (K, 520-579) Stomatognathic disease (Tooth disease) · Digestive disease (Esophageal, Stomach, Enteropathy, Liver, Pancreatic) (L, 680-709) Skin disease · skin appendages (Nail disease, Hair disease, Sweat gland disease) (M, 710-739) Musculoskeletal disorders · Osteochondropathy (Osteopathy, Chondropathy) (N, 580-629) Urologic disease (Nephropathy, Urinary bladder disease) · Male genital disease · Breast disease · Female genital disease (O, 630-679) Complications of pregnancy (P, 760-779) Fetal disease (Q, 740-759) Congenital disorder (R, 780-799) Syndromes · Medical signs (Eponymous) (S/T, 800-999) Bone fracture · Dislocations/subluxation · Sprain · Strain · Head injury · Chest trauma · Poisoning

List of mental illnesses Acute stress disorder - Adjustment disorder - Agoraphobia - alcohol and substance abuse - alcohol and substance dependence - Amnesia - Anxiety disorder - Anorexia nervosa - Antisocial personality disorder - Asperger syndrome - Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder - Autism - Autophagia - Avoidant personality disorder - Bereavement - Bestiality - Bibliomania - Binge eating disorder - Bipolar disorder - Body dysmorphic disorder - Borderline personality disorder - Brief psychotic disorder - Bulimia nervosa - Childhood disintegrative disorder - Circadian rhythm sleep disorder - Conduct disorder - Conversion disorder - Cyclothymia - Delirium - Delusional disorder - Dementia - Dependent personality disorder - Depersonalization disorder - Depression - Disorder of written expression - Dissociative fugue - Dissociative identity disorder - Down syndrome - Dyslexia - Dyspareunia - Dyspraxia - Dysthymic disorder - Erotomania - Encopresis - Enuresis - Exhibitionism - Expressive language disorder - Factitious disorder - Female and male orgasmic disorders - Female sexual arousal disorder - Fetishism - Folie à deux - Frotteurism - Ganser syndrome - Gender identity disorder - Generalized anxiety disorder - General adaptation syndrome - Histrionic personality disorder - Hyperactivity disorder - Primary hypersomnia - Hypoactive sexual desire disorder - Hypochondriasis - Hyperkinetic syndrome - Hysteria - Intermittent explosive disorder - Joubert syndrome - Kleptomania - Mania - Male erectile disorder - Munchausen syndrome - Mathematics disorder - Narcissistic personality disorder - Narcolepsy - Nightmares - Obsessive-compulsive disorder - Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder - Oneirophrenia - Oppositional defiant disorder - Pain disorder - Panic attacks - Panic disorder - Paraphilias - Paranoid personality disorder - Parasomnia - Pathological gambling - Pedophilia - Perfectionism - Pervasive Developmental Disorder - Pica - Postpartum Depression - Post-traumatic embitterment disorder - Post-traumatic stress disorder - Primary insomnia - Psychotic disorder - Pyromania - Reading disorder - Reactive attachment disorder - Retts disorder - Rumination syndrome - Schizoaffective disorder - Schizoid - Schizophrenia - Schizophreniform disorder - Schizotypal personality disorder - Seasonal affective disorder - Self Injury - Separation anxiety disorder - Sexual Masochism and Sadism - Shared psychotic disorder - Sleep disorder - Sleep terror disorder - Sleepwalking disorder - Social phobia - Somatization disorder - Specific phobias - Stereotypic movement disorder - Stuttering - Suicide - Tourette syndrome - Transient tic disorder - Transvestic Fetishism - Trichotillomania - Vaginismus

WHO ICD-10 mental and behavioral disorders (F · 290–319) Neurological/symptomatic Dementia (Alzheimer's disease, multi-infarct dementia, Pick's disease, Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, AIDS dementia complex, Frontotemporal dementia, Elopement, Sundowning, Wandering) · Delirium · Post-concussion syndrome · Organic brain syndrome Psychoactive substance alcohol (acute alcohol intoxication, drunkenness, alcohol dependence, alcoholic hallucinosis, Alcohol withdrawal, delirium tremens, Korsakoff's syndrome, alcohol abuse) · opioids (opioid overdose, opioid dependency) · sedative/hypnotic (benzodiazepine overdose, benzodiazepine dependence, benzodiazepine withdrawal) · cocaine (cocaine dependence) · general (Intoxication/Drug overdose, Drug abuse, Physical dependence, Rebound effect, Withdrawal) Schizophrenia, schizotypal and delusional Psychosis (Schizoaffective disorder, Schizophreniform disorder, Brief reactive psychosis) · Schizophrenia (Disorganized schizophrenia, Delusional disorder, Folie à deux) · Personality disorder (Schizotypal personality disorder) Mood (affective) Mania · Bipolar disorder (Bipolar I, Bipolar II, Cyclothymia) · Depression (Major depressive disorder, Dysthymia, Seasonal affective disorder) Neurotic, stress-related and somatoform Anxiety disorder/ adjustment disorder phobic anxiety disorders: Agoraphobia · Social anxiety/Social phobia (Anthropophobia) · Specific phobia (Claustrophobia) Panic disorder/Panic attack · Generalized anxiety disorder · OCD · stress (Acute stress reaction, PTSD) Somatoform disorder Somatization disorder · Body dysmorphic disorder · Hypochondriasis · Nosophobia · Da Costa's syndrome · Psychalgia · Conversion disorder (Ganser syndrome, Globus pharyngis) · Neurasthenia Dissociative disorder Dissociative identity disorder · Psychogenic amnesia Physiological/physical behavioral Eating disorder Anorexia nervosa · Bulimia nervosa · Rumination syndrome Sleep disorder Dyssomnia (Hypersomnia, Insomnia) · Parasomnia (REM behavior disorder, Night terror) · Nightmare Sexual dysfunction Erectile dysfunction · Premature ejaculation · Vaginismus · Dyspareunia · Hypersexuality · Female sexual arousal disorder Postnatal Postpartum depression · Postnatal psychosis Adult personality and behavior Personality disorder · Impulse control disorder (Kleptomania, Trichotillomania, Pyromania) · Factitious disorder (Munchausen syndrome) · Ego-dystonic sexual orientation · Paraphilia (Voyeurism, Fetishism) Mental disorders diagnosed in childhood Mental retardation X-Linked mental retardation Psychological development (developmental disorder) Specific speech and language (expressive language disorder, aphasia, expressive aphasia, receptive aphasia, Landau–Kleffner syndrome, lisp) · Scholastic skills (dyslexia, dysgraphia, Gerstmann syndrome) · Motor function (developmental dyspraxia) Pervasive Autism · Rett syndrome · Asperger syndrome Behavioral and emotional ADHD · Conduct disorder (ODD) · emotional disorder (Separation anxiety disorder) · social functioning (Selective mutism, RAD, DAD) · Tic disorder (Tourette syndrome) · Speech (Stuttering, Cluttering) · Stereotypic movement disorder

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