Psychopharmacology (from Greek Ancient Greek is the historical stage in the development of the Greek language spanning the Archaic , Classical (c. 5th–4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic (c. 3rd century BC – 6th century AD) periods of ancient Greece and the ancient world. It is predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek. Its Hellenistic phase is known as Koine (& ψῡχή, psȳkhē, "breath, life, soul"; φάρμακον, pharmakon, "drug"; and -λογία, -logia) is the study of drug-induced changes in mood, sensation, thinking, and behavior.^[1]

The field of psychopharmacology studies a wide range of substances with various types of psychoactive A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical or psychotropic is a chemical substance that crosses the blood-brain barrier and acts primarily upon the central nervous system where it alters brain function, resulting in changes in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, and behavior. These drugs may be used recreationally, to purposefully alter one' properties. The professional and commercial fields of pharmacology Pharmacology is the study of drug action. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals. The field encompasses drug composition and properties, interactions, and psychopharmacology do not mainly focus on psychedelic A psychedelic substance is a psychoactive drug whose primary action is to alter the cognition and perception of the mind. Psychedelics are part of a wider class of psychoactive drugs known as hallucinogens, which also includes related substances such as dissociatives and deliriants. Unlike other drugs such as stimulants and opioids which induce or recreational drugs Recreational drug use is the use of a psychoactive substance with the intention of creating or enhancing recreational experience. Such use is controversial, however, often being considered to be also drug abuse, and it is often illegal. Also, it may overlap with other uses, such as medicinal , performance enhancement, and entheogenic (spiritual), as the majority of studies are conducted for the development, study, and use of drugs for the modification of behavior and the alleviation of symptoms, particularly in the treatment of mental disorders A mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern associated with distress or disability that occurs in an individual and is not a part of normal development or culture. The recognition and understanding of mental health conditions has changed over time and across cultures, and there are still variations in the (psychiatric medication A psychiatric medication is a licensed psychoactive drug taken to exert an effect on the mental state and used to treat mental disorders. Usually prescribed in psychiatric settings, these medications are typically made of synthetic chemical compounds, although some are naturally occurring[citation needed]). While studies are conducted on all psychoactives by both fields, psychopharmacology focuses primarily on the psychoactive and chemical interactions with the brain The human brain is the center of the human nervous system and is a highly complex organ. Enclosed in the cranium, it has the same general structure as the brains of other mammals, but is over three times as large as the brain of a typical mammal with an equivalent body size. Most of the expansion comes from the cerebral cortex, a convoluted layer.

Psychoactive drugs A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical or psychotropic is a chemical substance that crosses the blood-brain barrier and acts primarily upon the central nervous system where it alters brain function, resulting in changes in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, and behavior. These drugs may be used recreationally, to purposefully alter one' may originate from natural sources such as plants and animals, or from artificial sources such as chemical synthesis In chemistry, chemical synthesis is purposeful execution of chemical reactions to get a product, or several products. This happens by physical and chemical manipulations usually involving one or more reactions. In modern laboratory usage, this tends to imply that the process is reproducible, reliable, and established to work in multiple in the laboratory. These drugs interact with particular target sites or receptors found in the nervous system The nervous system is an organ system containing a network of specialized cells called neurons that coordinate the actions of an animal and transmit signals between different parts of its body. In most animals the nervous system consists of two parts, central and peripheral. The central nervous system contains the brain, spinal cord, and retina to induce widespread changes in physiological or psychological functions. The specific interaction between drugs and their receptors is referred to as "drug action The action of drugs on the human body is called pharmacodynamics, and what the body does with the drug is called pharmacokinetics. The drugs that enter the human tend to stimulate certain receptors, ion channels, act on enzymes or transporter proteins. As a result, they cause the human body to react in a specific way", and the widespread changes in physiological or psychological function is referred to as "drug effect In a healthcare context, efficacy indicates the capacity for beneficial change of a given intervention (e.g. a medicine, medical device, surgical procedure, or a public health intervention)".

Historical overview

The use of psychoactive drugs A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical or psychotropic is a chemical substance that crosses the blood-brain barrier and acts primarily upon the central nervous system where it alters brain function, resulting in changes in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, and behavior. These drugs may be used recreationally, to purposefully alter one' predates recorded history. Hunter-gatherer societies tended to favor psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants These classes of psychoactive drugs have in common that they can cause subjective changes in perception, thought, emotion and consciousness. Unlike other psychoactive drugs, such as stimulants and opioids, the hallucinogens do not merely amplify familiar states of mind, but rather induce experiences that are qualitatively different from those of, and today their use can still be observed in many surviving tribal A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally, consists of a social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states cultures. The exact drug used depends on what the particular ecosystem An ecosystem consists of all the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the nonliving, physical components of the environment with which the organisms interact, such as air, soil, water, and sunlight. It is all the organisms in a given area, along with the nonliving factors with which they interact; a biological community and its a given tribe lives in can support, and are typically found growing wild. Such drugs include various psychedelic A psychedelic substance is a psychoactive drug whose primary action is to alter the cognition and perception of the mind. Psychedelics are part of a wider class of psychoactive drugs known as hallucinogens, which also includes related substances such as dissociatives and deliriants. Unlike other drugs such as stimulants and opioids which induce mushrooms Psilocybin mushrooms, are fungi that contain the medicinal compounds psilocybin and psilocin. There are multiple colloquial terms for psilocybin mushrooms, the most common being magic mushrooms or shrooms. Biological genera containing psilocybin mushrooms include Agrocybe, Conocybe, Copelandia, Galerina, Gerronema, Gymnopilus, Hypholoma, Inocybe, and cacti, along with many other plants. These societies generally attach spiritual significance to such drug use, and often incorporate it into their religious practices.

The common muscimol Muscimol is the major psychoactive alkaloid present in many mushrooms of the Amanita genus. Unlike psilocybin, a tryptamine, muscimol is a potent, selective agonist of the GABAA receptor-bearing mushroom Amanita muscaria Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly Amanita (pronounced /ˌæməˈnaɪtə/), is a poisonous and psychoactive basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita. Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, Amanita muscaria has been unintentionally introduced to many countries in the, also known as the "Fly Agaric", is frequently regarded as one of the first used psychoactive drugs, it is suspected to be the primary or active ingredient An active ingredient , is the substance in a pharmaceutical drug or a pesticide that is biologically active. Terms in similar use include: active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) and bulk active in medicine, or in pesticide formulations active substance may be used. Some medications and pesticide products may contain more than one active ingredient in the sacred drug of ancient India, known as Soma Soma ,[citation needed] or Haoma (Avestan), from Proto-Indo-Iranian *sauma-, was a ritual drink of importance among the early Indo-Iranians, and the later Vedic and greater Persian cultures. It is frequently mentioned in the Rigveda, whose Soma Mandala contains many hymns praising its energizing qualities. In the Avesta, Haoma has an entire Yašt.^[2] There are many modern theories citing the discovery of its psychoactive properties as far back as 10,000 BCE The 10th millennium BC marks the beginning of the Mesolithic and Epipaleolithic period, which is the first part of the Holocene epoch. Agriculture, based on the cultivation of primitive forms of millet and rice, occurred in Southwest Asia. Although agriculture was being developed in the Turkish Highlands and the Fertile Crescent, it would not be.

With the dawn of the Neolithic The Neolithic Age, Era, or Period, or New Stone Age, was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 9500 BCE in the Middle East that is traditionally considered the last part of the Stone Age. The Neolithic followed the terminal Holocene Epipalaeolithic period, beginning with the rise of farming, which produced the " and the proliferation of agriculture, new psychoactives A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical or psychotropic is a chemical substance that crosses the blood-brain barrier and acts primarily upon the central nervous system where it alters brain function, resulting in changes in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, and behavior. These drugs may be used recreationally, to purposefully alter one' came into use as a natural by-product of farming. Among them were opium Opium is the dried latex obtained from opium poppies (Papaver somniferum). Opium contains up to 12% morphine, an opiate alkaloid, which is most frequently processed chemically to produce heroin for the illegal drug trade. The latex also includes codeine and non-narcotic alkaloids, such as papaverine, thebaine and noscapine. The latex is obtained, cannabis Cannabis is a genus of flowering plants that includes three putative species, Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis. These three taxa are indigenous to Central Asia, and South Asia. Cannabis has long been used for fibre (hemp), for medicinal purposes, and as a recreational drug. Industrial hemp products are made from Cannabis, and alcohol Ethanol, also called ethyl alcohol, pure alcohol, grain alcohol, or drinking alcohol, is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid. It is a powerful psychoactive drug and one of the oldest recreational drugs. It is best known as the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages and thermometers. In common usage, it is often referred to simply as derived from the fermentation of cereals and fruits. Most societies began developing herblores, lists of herbs which were good for treating various physical and mental ailments. For example, St. John's Wort St John's wort is the plant species Hypericum perforatum, also known as Tipton's Weed or Klamath weed, but, with qualifiers, is used to refer to any species of the genus Hypericum. Therefore, H. perforatum is sometimes called Common St John's wort to differentiate it. The species of Hypericum have been placed by some in the family Hypericaceae, was traditionally prescribed in parts of Europe Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus region (Specification of borders) and the Black Sea to the southeast. Europe is bordered by the for depression (in addition to use as a general-purpose tea Tea is the agricultural product of the leaves, leaf buds, and internodes of the Camellia sinensis plant, prepared and cured by various methods. "Tea" also refers to the aromatic beverage prepared from the cured leaves by combination with hot or boiling water, and is the common name for the Camellia sinensis plant itself), and Chinese medicine Traditional Chinese Medicine, also known as TCM, includes a range of traditional medicine practices originating in China. Although well accepted in the mainstream of medical care throughout East Asia, it is considered an alternative medical system in much of the Western world developed elaborate lists of herbs Herbalism is a traditional medicinal or folk medicine practice based on the use of plants and plant extracts. Herbalism is also known as botanical medicine, medical herbalism, herbal medicine, herbology, and phytotherapy. The scope of herbal medicine is sometimes extended to include fungal and bee products, as well as minerals, shells and certain and preparations.

With the scientific revolution In the history of science, the scientific revolution was a period when new ideas in physics, astronomy, biology, human anatomy, chemistry, and other sciences led to a rejection of doctrines that had prevailed starting in Ancient Greece and continuing through the Middle Ages, and laid the foundation of modern science. According to a majority of in Europe and the United States ^ b. English is the de facto language of American government and the sole language spoken at home by 80% of Americans age five and older. Spanish is the second most commonly spoken language, the use of traditional herbal remedies fell out of favor with the mainstream medical establishment, although a few people continued to use and maintain knowledge of traditional European herblore. In the early 20th century, scientists began reassessing this rejection of traditional herbs in medicine. A number of important psychiatric drugs have been developed as a by-product of the analysis of organic compounds An organic compound is any member of a large class of chemical compounds whose molecules contain carbon. For historical reasons discussed below, a few types of compounds such as carbonates, simple oxides of carbon and cyanides, as well as the allotropes of carbon, are considered inorganic. The distinction between "organic" and " present in traditional herbal remedies. In the latter half of the 20th century, research into new psychopharmacologic drugs exploded, with many new drugs being discovered, created, and tested. Many once-popular drugs are now out of favor, and there are fashions in psychiatric drugs A psychiatric medication is a licenced psychoactive drug taken to exert an effect on the mental state and used to treat mental disorders. Usually prescribed in psychiatric settings, these medications are typically made of synthetic chemical compounds, although some are naturally occurring[citation needed], as with any other kind of drug.

Only since the 1950s has the use of psychiatric drugs to restore mental health Mental health is a term used to describe either a level of cognitive or emotional well-being or an absence of a mental disorder. From perspectives of the discipline of positive psychology or holism mental health may include an individual's ability to enjoy life and procure a balance between life activities and efforts to achieve psychological, or at least limit aberrant behavior, been a part of medical therapeutics, when a number of new classes of pharmacological agents were discovered, notably tranquillizers (e.g., chlorpromazine Chlorpromazine is the oldest typical antipsychotic. The molecular structure is 2-chloro-10-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-phenothiazine. Synthesized on December 11, 1950, chlorpromazine was the first drug developed with specific antipsychotic action. Its introduction has been described as the single biggest advance in psychiatric treatment, dramatically, reserpine US FDA:link, and other milder agents) and antidepressants An antidepressant is a psychiatric medication used to alleviate mood disorders, such as major depression and dysthymia and anxiety disorders such as social anxiety disorder. Drugs including the monoamine oxidase inhibitors , tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), tetracyclic antidepressants (TeCAs), selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), and (including the highly effective group known as tricyclic antidepressants Tricyclic antidepressants are heterocyclic chemical compounds used primarily as antidepressants. The TCAs were first discovered in the early 1950s and were subsequently introduced later in the decade. They are named after their chemical structure, which contains three rings of atoms. The tetracyclic antidepressants (TeCAs), which contain four). Additionally, psychedelic drugs A psychedelic substance is a psychoactive drug whose primary action is to alter the cognition and perception of the mind. Psychedelics are part of a wider class of psychoactive drugs known as hallucinogens, which also includes related substances such as dissociatives and deliriants. Unlike other drugs such as stimulants and opioids which induce (LSD Lysergic acid diethylamide, abbreviated LSD or LSD-25, also known as lysergide and colloquially as acid, is a semisynthetic psychedelic drug of the ergoline and tryptamine families. LSD is non-addictive, non-toxic, and is well known for its psychological effects which can include altered thinking processes, closed and open eye visuals, and psilocybin Psilocybin (also known as psilocybine or 4-PO-DMT) is a prodrug for the classical hallucinogen - more specifically, psychedelic - psilocin, or 4-HO-DMT (4-hydroxyl-dimethyltryptamine), the active metabolite of psilocybin, responsible for all of the psychoactive effect of the drug. Both drugs are members of the indole and tryptamine classes) and empathogens (MDMA MDMA is an entactogenic drug of the phenethylamine and amphetamine families) were popularized among many psychiatrists for a certain time as very helpful tools to assist psychotherapy Psychotherapy, or personal counselling with a psychotherapist, is an intentional interpersonal relationship used by trained psychotherapists to aid a client or patient in problems of living. Lithium Lithium is a soft, silver-white metal that belongs to the alkali metal group of chemical elements. It is represented by the symbol Li, and it has the atomic number 3. Under standard conditions it is the lightest metal and the least dense solid element. Like all alkali metals, lithium is highly reactive and flammable. For this reason, lithium metal is widely used to allay the symptoms of affective disorders The affective spectrum is a grouping of related psychiatric and medical disorders which may accompany bipolar, unipolar, and schizoaffective disorders at statistically higher rates than would normally be expected. These disorders are identified by a common positive response to the same types of pharmacologic treatments. They also aggregate and especially to prevent recurrences of both the manic and the depressed episodes in manic-depressive individuals. The many commercially marketed antipsychotic agents (including thiothixene, chlorpromazine, haloperidol, and thioridazine) all share the common property of blocking the dopamine receptors in the brain. (Dopamine acts to help transmit nerve impulses in the brain.) Since scientists have found a direct relationship between dopamine blockage and reduction of schizophrenic symptoms, many believe that schizophrenia may be related to excess dopamine.^[3]

These drugs contrast sharply with the hypnotic and sedative drugs that formerly were in use and that clouded the patient's consciousness and impaired his/her motor and perceptual abilities. The antipsychotic drugs can allay the symptoms of anxiety and reduce agitation, delusions, and hallucinations, and the antidepressants lift spirits and quell suicidal impulses. The heavy prescription use of drugs to reduce agitation and quell anxiety has led, however, to what many psychiatrists consider an overuse of such medications.^[4] An overdose of a tranquilizer may cause loss of muscular coordination and slowing of reflexes, and prolonged use can lead to addiction. Toxic side effects such as jaundice, psychoses, dependency, or a reaction similar to Parkinson's disease may develop. The drugs may produce other minor symptoms (e.g., heart palpitations, rapid pulse, sweating) because of their action on the autonomic nervous system.

Psychopharmacological research

In psychopharmacology, researchers are interested in any substance that crosses the blood-brain barrier and thus has an effect on behavior, mood or cognition. Drugs are researched for their physicochemical properties, physical side effects, and psychological side effects. Researchers in psychopharmacology study a variety of different psychoactive substances that include alcohol, cannabinoids, club drugs, psychedelics, opiates, nicotine, caffeine, psychomotor stimulants, inhalants, and anabolic-androgenic steroids. They also study drugs used in the treatment of affective and anxiety disorders, as well as schizophrenia.

Clinical studies are often very specific, typically beginning with animal testing, and ending with human testing. In the human testing phase, there is often a group of subjects, one group is given a placebo, and the other is administered a carefully measured therapeutic dose of the drug in question. After all of the testing is completed, the drug is proposed to the concerned regulatory authority (e.g. the U.S. FDA), and is either commercially introduced to the public via prescription, or deemed safe enough for over the counter sale.

Though particular drugs are prescribed for specific symptoms or syndromes, they are usually not specific to the treatment of any single mental disorder. Because of their ability to modify the behavior of even the most disturbed patients, the antipsychotic, antianxiety, and antidepressant agents have greatly affected the management of the hospitalized mentally ill, enabling hospital staff to devote more of their attention to therapeutic efforts and enabling many patients to lead relatively normal lives outside of the hospital. A somewhat controversial application of psychopharmacology is "cosmetic psychiatry" Persons who do not meet criteria for any psychiatric disorder are nevertheless prescribed psychotropic medication. The antidepressant Wellbutrin is then prescribed to increase perceived energy levels and assertiveness while diminishing the need for sleep. The antihypertensive compound Inderal is sometimes chosen to eliminate the discomfort of day-to-day "normal" anxiety . Prozac in nondepressed people can produce a feeling of generalized well-being. Mirapex, a treatment for restless leg syndrome, can dramatically increase libido in women. These and other off-label life-style applications of medications are not uncommon. Although occasionally reported in the medical literature no guidelines for such usage have been developed. ^[5]

See also

• Mental health
• Psychiatric medication
• Psychiatry

References

1. ^ Meyer, J. S. and Quenzer, L. S. (2004). Psychopharmacology: Drugs, the Brain and Behavior. Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0-87893-534-7.
2. ^ Mike Crowley (1996). "When the Gods Drank Urine". Fortean Studies, vol. III. http://www.erowid.org/plants/amanitas/amanitas_writings1.shtml.
3. ^ Horrobin DF (March 1979). "Schizophrenia: Reconciliation of the dopamine, prostaglandin, and opioid concepts and the role of the pineal". Lancet 313 (8115): 529. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(79)90948-6. PMID 85110.
4. ^ Anne Collins Abrams, Carol Barnett Lammon, Sandra Smith Pennington (2007). Clinical Drug Therapy: Rationales for Nursing Practice. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 0781762634. http://books.google.com/?id=C_nvdWfbL1cC&pg=PT159&lpg=PT159&dq=%22that+antipsychotic+drugs+may+be+overused+to+control%22.
5. ^ AJ Giannini.The case for cosmetic psychiatry: Treatment without diagnosis. Psychiatric Times. 21(7):1-2,2004

Further reading

• Jack D. Barchas et al. (eds.), Psychopharmacology: From Theory to Practice (2003), an introductory text with detailed examples of treatment protocols and problems.
• Morris A. Lipton, Alberto DiMascio, and Keith F. Killam (eds.), Psychopharmacology: A Generation of Progress (2002), a general historical analysis.
• Malcolm Lader (ed.), The Psychopharmacology of Addiction (2005).

Peer-reviewed journals

• Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, American Psychological Association[1]
• Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins[2]
• Psychopharmacology (journal), Springer Berlin / Heidelberg[3]
• Journal of Psychopharmacology

External links

• Psychopharmacology – The Fourth Generation of Progress — American College of Neuropsychopharmacology (ACNP)
• Bibliographical history of Psychopharmacology and Pharmacopsychology — Advances in the History of Psychology, York University

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